What is the Sub-Mission on Agroforestry (SMAF)?

SMAF is the centrally-sponsored agroforestry sub-mission of the Department of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare (DA&FW), launched in 2016–17 to operationalise India's National Agroforestry Policy (NAP) of 2014. SMAF funds nursery establishment and quality planting material supply, peripheral / boundary / block plantations on farmer land, capacity building of state forestry and agriculture line departments and demonstration trials with ICAR-CAFRI Jhansi. It is anchored in the Har Medh Par Ped (a tree on every farm bund) vision of integrating trees with crops and livestock on the same farm holding. From 1 October 2024 SMAF runs under the Pradhan Mantri Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (PM-RKVY) umbrella alongside RKVY, NMSA's Rainfed Area Development, Per Drop More Crop, PKVY, the Soil Health Mission and Crop Residue Management.

What does SMAF actually fund on the ground?

SMAF funds five operational components: (1) Nursery / hi-tech nursery establishment, including big-nurseries (4 ha) and small-nurseries (1 ha) producing quality planting material of agroforestry species; (2) Peripheral / boundary / block plantations on farmer land — assistance is given for planting material, fertilisers, pesticides, irrigation and protection works on an unit-cost-norm basis; (3) Capacity building of state forestry / agriculture line departments, KVKs and farmer-producer organisations; (4) Demonstration trials at ICAR-CAFRI Jhansi, ICAR-IIFSR Modipuram and the State Agricultural Universities; (5) Information, education and communication (IEC) activities including farmer melas, exposure visits and operational manuals. The operational guidelines are published on agriwelfare.gov.in.

Why agroforestry — what is the case for trees on farms?

ICAR-CAFRI Jhansi (the apex research institute on agroforestry, set up in 1988) estimates India's agroforestry area at ~28.4 Mha, or about 8.65% of the geographical area, which is the largest agroforestry area among major countries. Agroforestry on farmer land delivers four convergent outcomes: (a) raises farm income through timber, pulpwood, fuelwood, fodder, fruit and gum / resin / lac value chains; (b) raises productivity per unit rainfall on rainfed land through microclimate moderation, shelterbelts and improved soil organic carbon; (c) contributes to India's NDC commitment of an additional 2.5–3.0 GtCO2e carbon sink by 2030 by raising tree-cover-outside-forests; and (d) reduces pressure on natural forests by meeting domestic timber demand from farm-grown trees. SMAF is the operational vehicle through which DA&FW funds the planting-material and demonstration ends of that case.

How does SMAF converge with NMSA, NBM, RKVY, PKVY and MGNREGS?

SMAF sits at the centre of an agroforestry-convergence map across DA&FW, MoEFCC and MoRD. Within DA&FW it converges with NMSA's Rainfed Area Development (RAD) sub-component for cluster-based Integrated Farming Systems that include agroforestry as one of the seven IFS enterprises, with RKVY for state-prioritised plantation works, with PKVY for organic-cluster agroforestry and with Per Drop More Crop / PMKSY for the micro-irrigation that the boundary / block plantations need to survive. Outside DA&FW, the National Bamboo Mission (NBM) under DA&FW funds the bamboo-specific value chain, MGNREGS funds the labour wage component of MoRD plantation works on common land and CAMPA under MoEFCC funds the compensatory plantation works tied to forest-land diversion. Cross-mission convergence is coordinated through the State Level Sanctioning Committees and the State Agroforestry Mission cells.

What is ICAR-CAFRI's role under SMAF?

The ICAR-Central Agroforestry Research Institute (CAFRI) at Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh — set up in 1988 as the National Research Centre for Agroforestry and upgraded to a Central Institute — is the technical anchor of SMAF. CAFRI hosts the All India Coordinated Research Project on Agroforestry (AICRP-AF) network of about 37 centres across the state agricultural universities, develops the species-region planting protocols, runs the demonstration trials that SMAF funds, hosts the National Repository of Agroforestry Species and produces the QPMN protocol manuals for clonal and seedling material. CAFRI also maintains the agroforestry-area estimate that the State of Forest Report appendix carries.

Where are the SMAF operational guidelines, allocations and progress reports?

DA&FW publishes the SMAF operational guidelines, the nursery establishment templates, the boundary / block plantation unit costs and the Annual Action Plan format at agriwelfare.gov.in. State-wise annual allocations are notified through the DA&FW Operational Circulars and the State Level Sanctioning Committee proceedings. ICAR-CAFRI Jhansi publishes the AICRP-AF technical bulletins, the species protocols and the agroforestry-area estimate at cafri.icar.gov.in. The National Agroforestry Policy 2014 text and the 10 February 2014 Cabinet release are on pib.gov.in. State agroforestry mission cells publish their state-level guidelines on the respective state agriculture department portals.

SMAF Guide — Sub-Mission on Agroforestry (launched 2016–17 under the National Agroforestry Policy 2014): planting-material supply, quality nursery accreditation, the Har Medh Par Ped vision, the convergence with NMSA / RKVY / PKVY and the post-1-October-2024 migration into the PM-RKVY umbrella

The Sub-Mission on Agroforestry (SMAF) is the centrally-sponsored agroforestry sub-mission of the Department of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare (DA&FW), launched in 2016–17 to operationalise India's National Agroforestry Policy (NAP) of 10 February 2014 — the first stand-alone agroforestry policy in any country in the world, adopted at the recommendations of the first World Congress on Agroforestry hosted at New Delhi in February 2014. SMAF is anchored in the Har Medh Par Ped (a tree on every farm bund) vision and funds nursery establishment, quality planting material supply, peripheral / boundary / block plantations on farmer land, capacity building of state forestry / agriculture departments and demonstration trials in convergence with ICAR-CAFRI Jhansi. On 1 October 2024 the Union Cabinet folded SMAF into the Pradhan Mantri Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (PM-RKVY) umbrella alongside RKVY, NMSA's Rainfed Area Development, Per Drop More Crop, the Soil Health Mission, PKVY and Crop Residue Management.

At a glance

Mission type: centrally-sponsored sub-mission of the Department of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare (DA&FW).
Policy origin: National Agroforestry Policy (NAP) approved by the Union Cabinet on 10 February 2014.
Operational rollout: from 2016–17 as the SMAF budget head.
Vision: Har Medh Par Ped — a tree on every farm bund.
Five components: nursery / hi-tech nursery establishment; peripheral / boundary / block plantations; capacity building; demonstration trials; IEC.
Technical anchor: ICAR-CAFRI Jhansi and the AICRP-AF network of ~37 centres.
Quality framework: Quality Planting Material Network (QPMN) accreditation for state-level nurseries.
Cost-share: 60:40 Centre-State for general states, 90:10 for the eight North-Eastern states and the Himalayan states (HP / UK / J&K / Ladakh) and 100% central for Union Territories without a legislature.
NDC linkage: contributes to India's commitment of an additional 2.5–3.0 GtCO2e carbon sink by 2030 by raising tree-cover-outside-forests.
Post-1-October-2024 status: SMAF consolidated into the PM-RKVY umbrella alongside RKVY, RAD, Per Drop More Crop, Soil Health Mission, PKVY and Crop Residue Management.

Why an agroforestry sub-mission — the NAP 2014 origin

India was the first country in the world to adopt a stand-alone National Agroforestry Policy. The NAP 2014 was approved by the Cabinet on 10 February 2014at the recommendations of the first World Congress on Agroforestry hosted at New Delhi in February 2014. Its objectives are to encourage farmers to integrate trees with crop and livestock production, to enhance livelihoods and farm incomes through tree-product value chains, to meet the domestic timber / pulpwood / fuelwood / fodder / fruit demand and to contribute to India's climate commitments by raising tree-cover-outside-forests. NAP 2014 was the policy gap that SMAF then filled with a programmatic budget head from 2016–17 onwards and a clear operational anchor in DA&FW rather than the Ministry of Environment, Forest & Climate Change. This DA&FW anchoring is what makes agroforestry on farmer land a subject of agricultural extension rather than forest management.

The five operational components

1. Nursery / hi-tech nursery establishment

SMAF funds the establishment of big nurseries (4 ha) and small nurseries (1 ha) producing quality planting material of agroforestry species, both clonal (poplar, eucalyptus, melia, casuarina) and seedling (subabul, neem, sandalwood, gum-arabic species and a long tail of locally-relevant species). Hi-tech nurseries with mist chambers, root-trainer benches and shade-house infrastructure get a higher unit-cost ceiling than open-field nurseries. The nurseries that produce SMAF-funded planting material are required to maintain mother-plant blocks, follow species-specific propagation protocols and label saplings with species / clone / source / age — the operational backbone of the QPMN framework.

2. Peripheral / boundary / block plantations on farmer land

The largest spend head of SMAF is direct support for peripheral / boundary / block plantations on farmer land. Assistance is given for planting material, fertilisers, light pesticide protection, drip / sprinkler micro-irrigation on the establishment cycle and protection works such as cattle-guard fencing on a unit-cost-norm basis. The plantation design follows the species-region matrices that the AICRP-AF network has worked out for the eighteen agro-climatic zones — for example poplar-based agri-silviculture in the Indo-Gangetic Plain, melia-based block plantations in central India, casuarina belts on the East Coast, subabul / bamboo-based silvi-pastoral on dry rainfed land and the fruit-and-fodder agri-horti-silviculture of the Himalayan and North-Eastern hill states.

3. Capacity building of state line departments

SMAF funds training of state forestry / agriculture line department field staff, KVK extension officers and farmer-producer organisation managers on agroforestry plantation design, post-planting management, tree-felling permit liberalisation under state Transit Rule notifications, harvest economics and the timber-grading standards that the wood-based industry uses. Capacity building closes the tree-felling permit gap that historically discouraged farmers from planting timber species on their own land — a gap that NAP 2014 explicitly called out as the binding constraint.

4. Demonstration trials with ICAR-CAFRI and SAUs

SMAF funds long-cycle demonstration trials at ICAR-CAFRI Jhansi, ICAR-IIFSR Modipuram and the State Agricultural Universities. The demonstrations test species-region matrices, intercropping windows, irrigation regimes and harvest economics; their outputs are then packaged into the state-specific operational guidelines that the State Level Sanctioning Committee uses to approve farmer-cluster plantation plans. The AICRP-AF network of about 37 centres across SAUs is the standing demonstration backbone.

5. Information, Education and Communication (IEC)

SMAF funds IEC activities — farmer melas, exposure visits, video documentation, operational manuals and the state-language translations of the CAFRI / AICRP-AF technical bulletins. IEC is the extension-end of SMAF and is delivered in convergence with the ATMA (Sub-Mission on Agricultural Extension) machinery in the districts.

The Quality Planting Material Network (QPMN)

The Quality Planting Material Network (QPMN)is SMAF's accreditation framework for state-level nurseries that supply agroforestry planting material under the mission. Nurseries that produce SMAF-funded planting material are required to maintain mother-plant blocks, follow species-specific propagation protocols, label saplings with species / clone / source / age and follow the certification standards drawn up by ICAR-CAFRI Jhansi for clonal and seedling material of poplar, eucalyptus, melia, casuarina, subabul, neem, sandalwood, bamboo and a long tail of locally-relevant species. The QPMN framework is the equivalent for agroforestry of the seed-certification framework that the Indian Council of Seed Certification operates for field crops — the operational logic is that quality planting material is the single largest determinant of long-cycle plantation survival and productivity.

Convergence — NMSA, RKVY, PKVY, NBM, MGNREGS, CAMPA

NMSA's Rainfed Area Development (RAD): cluster-based Integrated Farming Systems on rainfed land — agroforestry is one of the seven IFS enterprise options.
RKVY / PM-RKVY: state-prioritised plantation works including agroforestry, with the broader umbrella now hosting SMAF post-1-October-2024.
PKVY: 20-hectare organic clusters where agroforestry blocks complement organic crop rotations on the certification cycle.
NMNF: ₹2,481 crore standalone CSS approved 25 November 2024 for cattle-based, chemical-free natural farming; agroforestry contributes the biomass and shade structure for natural-farming clusters.
National Bamboo Mission (NBM): the bamboo-specific convergence head under DA&FW, with restructured NBM operational guidelines from 2018–19; bamboo nurseries and planting are co-funded across SMAF and NBM.
MGNREGS: labour-wage component on plantation works on common land funded by the Ministry of Rural Development; SMAF supplies planting material and technical design.
CAMPA: the Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management & Planning Authority under MoEFCC; CAMPA funds the compensatory plantation works tied to forest-land diversion and complements SMAF on the forest-side.
Per Drop More Crop (PDMC): the micro-irrigation envelope that boundary / block plantations need for survival in the establishment cycle.

Cost-share between Centre and State

SMAF followed the standard centrally-sponsored scheme cost-share pattern. For the general states the Centre-State share is 60:40, for the eight North-Eastern states and the Himalayan states (Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand and the erstwhile Jammu & Kashmir / Ladakh) the share is 90:10, and for Union Territories without a legislature the central share is 100%. The same cost-share continues post-1-October-2024 for SMAF as it operates under the PM-RKVY umbrella.

The NDC linkage — agroforestry as a carbon sink

India's Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) under the Paris Agreement, last updated in August 2022, commits the country to creating an additional carbon sink of 2.5–3.0 GtCO2ethrough additional forest and tree cover by 2030. Farm-tree planting on the existing ~28.4 Mha agroforestry area (about 8.65% of the geographical area, per ICAR-CAFRI and the State of Forest Report appendices) is the single-largest available delta on that commitment — natural-forest tree cover is largely already protected, but tree-cover-outside-forests on farmer land has substantial expansion room. SMAF's planting-material and demonstration ends are the operational lever on that expansion, and the policy-side lever is the state-level liberalisation of tree-felling and timber-transit rules that NAP 2014 called for.

The 1 October 2024 PM-RKVY restructure

On 1 October 2024the Union Cabinet restructured the DA&FW scheme portfolio into two umbrella schemes for the 2024–25 to 2025–26 cycle. The Pradhan Mantri Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (PM-RKVY) umbrella consolidates the Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY-RAFTAAR), the Soil Health Mission (built on SHCS / NMSA), Rainfed Area Development (RAD / NMSA), Per Drop More Crop (PDMC / PMKSY), the Sub-Mission on Agroforestry (SMAF), Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY) and Crop Residue Management. The parallel Krishonnati Yojana umbrella consolidates NFSM, NMEO-Oilseeds, NMEO-OP, the Sub-Mission on Seeds and Planting Material, the Integrated Scheme on Agricultural Mechanization (ISAM / SMAM) and the Sub-Mission on Agricultural Extension (ATMA). SMAF therefore no longer runs as a stand-alone budget head from 2024–25; the operational guidelines for the QPMN nursery accreditation, the boundary / block plantation unit costs and the CAFRI demonstration trials continue unchanged.

References

agriwelfare.gov.in — Department of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare — SMAF operational guidelines, the nursery establishment templates, the boundary / block plantation unit costs and the Annual Action Plan format. Post-1-October-2024 the same operational guidelines apply under the PM-RKVY umbrella.
cafri.icar.gov.in — ICAR-Central Agroforestry Research Institute (CAFRI), Jhansi — the technical anchor of SMAF, host of the All India Coordinated Research Project on Agroforestry (AICRP-AF) network, the National Repository of Agroforestry Species and the QPMN protocol manuals.
pib.gov.in — Press Information Bureau — Cabinet press releases of 10 February 2014 (National Agroforestry Policy approval at the first World Congress on Agroforestry, New Delhi), the 2016–17 SMAF rollout and 1 October 2024 (PM-RKVY / Krishonnati Yojana restructure that consolidates SMAF).
nbm.nic.in — National Bamboo Mission portal — the bamboo-specific convergence head with SMAF, with restructured NBM operational guidelines effective 2018–19, the species-list and nursery accreditation that complement SMAF's QPMN framework.
fsi.nic.in — Forest Survey of India — India State of Forest Report appendices on tree-cover-outside-forests and the agroforestry-area estimate (~28.4 Mha, ~8.65% of geographical area) that anchor SMAF's NDC linkage.
moef.gov.in — Ministry of Environment, Forest & Climate Change — the CAMPA framework, the National REDD+ Strategy and India's NDC document for the additional 2.5–3.0 GtCO2e carbon-sink commitment that SMAF helps deliver through farm-tree planting.

Frequently asked questions

What is the Sub-Mission on Agroforestry (SMAF)?: SMAF is the centrally-sponsored agroforestry sub-mission of the Department of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare (DA&FW), launched in 2016–17 to operationalise India's National Agroforestry Policy (NAP) of 2014. SMAF funds nursery establishment and quality planting material supply, peripheral / boundary / block plantations on farmer land, capacity building of state forestry and agriculture line departments and demonstration trials with ICAR-CAFRI Jhansi. It is anchored in the Har Medh Par Ped (a tree on every farm bund) vision of integrating trees with crops and livestock on the same farm holding. From 1 October 2024 SMAF runs under the Pradhan Mantri Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (PM-RKVY) umbrella alongside RKVY, NMSA's Rainfed Area Development, Per Drop More Crop, PKVY, the Soil Health Mission and Crop Residue Management.
What is the National Agroforestry Policy 2014 that SMAF operationalises?: India was the first country in the world to adopt a stand-alone National Agroforestry Policy. The NAP 2014 was approved by the Cabinet on 10 February 2014 at the recommendations of the first World Congress on Agroforestry hosted at New Delhi in February 2014. Its objectives are to encourage farmers to integrate trees with crop and livestock production, to enhance livelihoods and farm incomes through tree-product value chains, to meet the timber / pulpwood / fuelwood / fodder / fruit demand and to contribute to India's climate commitments by raising tree-cover-outside-forests. NAP 2014 was the policy gap that SMAF then filled with a programmatic budget head from 2016–17 onwards.
What does SMAF actually fund on the ground?: SMAF funds five operational components: (1) Nursery / hi-tech nursery establishment, including big-nurseries (4 ha) and small-nurseries (1 ha) producing quality planting material of agroforestry species; (2) Peripheral / boundary / block plantations on farmer land — assistance is given for planting material, fertilisers, pesticides, irrigation and protection works on an unit-cost-norm basis; (3) Capacity building of state forestry / agriculture line departments, KVKs and farmer-producer organisations; (4) Demonstration trials at ICAR-CAFRI Jhansi, ICAR-IIFSR Modipuram and the State Agricultural Universities; (5) Information, education and communication (IEC) activities including farmer melas, exposure visits and operational manuals. The operational guidelines are published on agriwelfare.gov.in.
What is the Quality Planting Material Network (QPMN) under SMAF?: The Quality Planting Material Network (QPMN) is SMAF's accreditation framework for state-level nurseries that supply agroforestry planting material under the mission. Nurseries that produce SMAF-funded planting material are required to maintain mother-plant blocks, follow species-specific propagation protocols, label saplings with species / clone / source / age and follow the certification standards drawn up by ICAR-CAFRI Jhansi for clonal and seedling material of poplar, eucalyptus, melia, casuarina, subabul, neem, sandalwood, bamboo and a long tail of locally-relevant species. The QPMN framework is the equivalent for agroforestry of the seed-certification framework that the Indian Council of Seed Certification operates for field crops.
Why agroforestry — what is the case for trees on farms?: ICAR-CAFRI Jhansi (the apex research institute on agroforestry, set up in 1988) estimates India's agroforestry area at ~28.4 Mha, or about 8.65% of the geographical area, which is the largest agroforestry area among major countries. Agroforestry on farmer land delivers four convergent outcomes: (a) raises farm income through timber, pulpwood, fuelwood, fodder, fruit and gum / resin / lac value chains; (b) raises productivity per unit rainfall on rainfed land through microclimate moderation, shelterbelts and improved soil organic carbon; (c) contributes to India's NDC commitment of an additional 2.5–3.0 GtCO2e carbon sink by 2030 by raising tree-cover-outside-forests; and (d) reduces pressure on natural forests by meeting domestic timber demand from farm-grown trees. SMAF is the operational vehicle through which DA&FW funds the planting-material and demonstration ends of that case.
How does SMAF converge with NMSA, NBM, RKVY, PKVY and MGNREGS?: SMAF sits at the centre of an agroforestry-convergence map across DA&FW, MoEFCC and MoRD. Within DA&FW it converges with NMSA's Rainfed Area Development (RAD) sub-component for cluster-based Integrated Farming Systems that include agroforestry as one of the seven IFS enterprises, with RKVY for state-prioritised plantation works, with PKVY for organic-cluster agroforestry and with Per Drop More Crop / PMKSY for the micro-irrigation that the boundary / block plantations need to survive. Outside DA&FW, the National Bamboo Mission (NBM) under DA&FW funds the bamboo-specific value chain, MGNREGS funds the labour wage component of MoRD plantation works on common land and CAMPA under MoEFCC funds the compensatory plantation works tied to forest-land diversion. Cross-mission convergence is coordinated through the State Level Sanctioning Committees and the State Agroforestry Mission cells.
What is the SMAF cost-share between Centre and State?: SMAF followed the standard centrally-sponsored scheme cost-share pattern that applies to most DA&FW CSS heads. For the general states the Centre-State share is 60:40, for the eight North-Eastern states and the Himalayan states (Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand and the erstwhile Jammu & Kashmir / Ladakh) the share is 90:10, and for Union Territories without a legislature the central share is 100%. The same cost-share continues post-1-October-2024 for SMAF as it operates under the PM-RKVY umbrella.
What is ICAR-CAFRI's role under SMAF?: The ICAR-Central Agroforestry Research Institute (CAFRI) at Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh — set up in 1988 as the National Research Centre for Agroforestry and upgraded to a Central Institute — is the technical anchor of SMAF. CAFRI hosts the All India Coordinated Research Project on Agroforestry (AICRP-AF) network of about 37 centres across the state agricultural universities, develops the species-region planting protocols, runs the demonstration trials that SMAF funds, hosts the National Repository of Agroforestry Species and produces the QPMN protocol manuals for clonal and seedling material. CAFRI also maintains the agroforestry-area estimate that the State of Forest Report appendix carries.
What changed for SMAF on 1 October 2024?: On 1 October 2024 the Union Cabinet restructured the DA&FW scheme portfolio into two umbrella schemes for the 2024–25 to 2025–26 cycle. The Pradhan Mantri Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (PM-RKVY) umbrella consolidates the Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY-RAFTAAR), the Soil Health Mission (built on SHCS / NMSA), Rainfed Area Development (RAD / NMSA), Per Drop More Crop (PDMC / PMKSY), the Sub-Mission on Agroforestry (SMAF), Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY) and Crop Residue Management. The parallel Krishonnati Yojana umbrella consolidates NFSM, NMEO-Oilseeds, NMEO-OP, the Sub-Mission on Seeds and Planting Material, the Integrated Scheme on Agricultural Mechanization (ISAM) and the Sub-Mission on Agricultural Extension (ATMA). SMAF therefore no longer runs as a stand-alone budget head from 2024–25; the operational guidelines for the QPMN nursery accreditation, the boundary / block plantation unit costs and the CAFRI demonstration trials continue unchanged.
Where are the SMAF operational guidelines, allocations and progress reports?: DA&FW publishes the SMAF operational guidelines, the nursery establishment templates, the boundary / block plantation unit costs and the Annual Action Plan format at agriwelfare.gov.in. State-wise annual allocations are notified through the DA&FW Operational Circulars and the State Level Sanctioning Committee proceedings. ICAR-CAFRI Jhansi publishes the AICRP-AF technical bulletins, the species protocols and the agroforestry-area estimate at cafri.icar.gov.in. The National Agroforestry Policy 2014 text and the 10 February 2014 Cabinet release are on pib.gov.in. State agroforestry mission cells publish their state-level guidelines on the respective state agriculture department portals.

Policy origin, the 10 February 2014 NAP framing, the 2016–17 SMAF rollout, the QPMN nursery accreditation framework, the ICAR-CAFRI Jhansi technical anchoring and the 1 October 2024 PM-RKVY restructure summarised above reflect Union Cabinet press releases and operational notes on agriwelfare.gov.in, cafri.icar.gov.in and pib.gov.in. Annual state allocations, nursery accreditation lists and AICRP-AF centre lists are revised through ministry operational circulars; state nodal officers, KVKs, accredited nurseries and farmers should verify current terms before sanctioning, accrediting or applying for assistance. Last reviewed: 2026-06-17.